Factionalism: The Second Enemy
 

Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo

"It was characteristic of the Filipinos to split into factions, but the encouragement given to General Antonio Luna's aspiration to supersede his supreme chief was unfortunate, for Aguinaldo was not the man to tolerate a rival.  He had rid himself of Andres Bonifacio in 1896, and now another disturber of that unity which is strength had to be disposed of.  The point of dispute between these two men was of public knowledge." John Foreman,  The Philippine Islands, 1906

Photo of Gen. Antonio Luna, a brave soldier who was appointed as Director of War before the outbreak of the war. He fought a strong defense against the American forces commanded by General Lloyd Wheaton in the Battle of Bagbag/Calumpit. His temperament as a disciplinarian brought him many enemies within rank and file of the Philippine government and led to his assassination by men known to be loyal to Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo.

On Bonifacio's Execution:
[In reference to the Bonifacio-Aguinaldo power struggle during the Katipunan Revolt (1896-1897)]
 

"This tragedy [of Bonifacio's execution] smothered the enthusiasm for the revolutionary cause and hastened the failure of the insurrection in Cavite, because many from Manila, Laguna, and Batangas who were fighting for the province [of Cavite] were demoralized and quit, and soon the so-called central government had to witdraw to the mountains of Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan…" Apolinario Mabini, writing in his  memoirs "La Revolucion Filipinas" Andres Bonifacio, founder of the Katipunan Society. The Katipunan sparked the Philippine Revolution on August 1896 in the Cry of Balintawak. In the Tejeros Convention in March 1897, Bonifacio lost the power to Aguinaldo as titular head of the newly-formed Revolutionary Government.  Refusing to abide by the humiliating results of the Tejeros Convention, he was tried and executed for counter-revolutionary activities.

On the Loss of General Luna:
[In reference to the Luna-Aguinaldo power struggle during the Independence War (1899-1902)]

"The loss of Luna was, of course, a very heavy blow to our armed efforts…The Luna incident did create such as grave crisis in both government and military organizations that it was all I could do to stave off their immediate and complete collapse.  Both our Cabinet and our military command had to be quickly and properly reorganized. I took tighter control of the Government and personally assumed overall command of our armed forces.  In the midst of this crisis the American forces further intensified their assaults agaisnt us."
 
• Emilio Aguinaldo, in an interview during his later years

• The Irreconcilables who were die-hard nationalists who advocated for total Philippine independence without any compromise.  They consisted of Apolinario Mabini and Gen. Antonio Luna and a handful of other nationalists.

• The Autonomists who were moderate nationalists who advocated limited self-rule under the sovereignty of the United States.  They consisted of Pedro Paterno, Felipe Buencamino and the rest of the war-time "Peace Cabinet" led by Pedro Paterno.

• The Collaborators who were the ilustrados who were more interested in the protection and preservation of their private properties before loyalty to the cause of independence.  While the nationalists were retreating northward, this group accepted the "Policy of Attraction" offered by the Americans through appointments to influential positions and to serve the American-sponsored government in return for recognition of the American sovereignty.  For these officials, their collaboration were justified among themselves as merely cooperation with the new colonial administration for the good of the country.  If there is a milder term for collaborators, perhaps they were merely in favor of "assimiliation" by the Americans, thus describing themselves as "assimilationists."

"Our country is passing through a critical stage. The loyal Filipinos will have a terrible end. It is not because the enemy is greater, but because of the corruption and treason of our countrymen. They hesitated on the way and are selling us for a handful of gold." Apolinario Mabini

Photo of Apolinario Mabini, a brilliant lawyer who graduated with a nearly perfect scholastic records. He was involved with Dr. Jose Rizal's La Liga Filipina and was arrested but was immediately released, the authorities thinking that a paralytic person would be incapable of revolutionary activities. Upon Aguinaldo's return from his Hong Kong exile on May 1898, Mabini was summoned to help him set up an emergency government. Thereupon, Mabini crafted all Aguinaldo's decrees and proclamations giving legitimacy to Aguinaldo's revolutionary government. When the war ended, he was exiled to Guam for his refusal to swear allegiance to the U.S. After writing his memoir "La Revolucion Filipinas," he was allowed to return to the Philippines where he finally swore allegiance to the U.S. He was struck by the cholera epidemic in 1903 at the young age of 39.

"Our arms are our only defense. Once we yield them we are at the mercy of our conquerors and will have no recourse but to accept their conditions."

• Gen. Antonio Luna

Issues that Divided the  Filipinos into Factions	Course of Action	Occurrence
Total Philippine independence advocated by Apolinario Mabini and Gen. Antonio Luna.	War for Independence	February 4, 1899 to  July 4, 1902
Autonomy or limited self-rule under the sovereignty and protection of the American flag. Pedro A. Paterno, the second President of the Cabinet of the Philippine Republic who replaced Apolinario Mabini and advocated autonomy. When Gen. Luna vigorously objected, he was forced to issue a Declaration of War against the United States on June 2, 1899.	U.S. offer for autonomy acceptable to the Paterno Cabinet;  Gen. Luna vigorously objected  autonomy threatening arrest to all advocates of autonomy.	Autonomy offer made by U.S. Secretary of State John Hay on May 5, 1899 through the First U.S. Philippine (Schurman) Commission.
Collaboration? Cooperation? Abandonement? Assimilation? T.H. Pardo de Tavera, president of the Partido Federal (Federalistas), the first Philippine political party organized on February 22, 1901, promoted statehood for the Philippines as its platform.  He was one of the delegates to the Malolos (Revolutionary) Congress that passed the Constitution of the republic during the Revolutionary Days in 1898.	Negros Constitution establishing the Negros government under the protection of the American flag; Ilustrados accepting influential positions and serving in American-established government while Emilio Aguinaldo's nationalist forces were retreating northward.	Appointment of Anecito Lacson as Negros governor on March 1899; Appointment of Anecito Clarin as Bohol Governor on April 20, 1901 Appointment of Cayetano Arellano as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court on May 29, 1899 Chief Justice Cayetano Arellano, the first Filipino to be appointed to the highest official position by the Americans while Aguinaldo was waging the Independence War. Together with Pardo de Tavera, he was one of the "Little Brown Brothers" as W.H. Taft would call the newly-colonized Filipinos.

Dissension Within the Lower Rank:

"…the old element of the revolution and the new element…are at odds. Luna represents the new element in the revolution.  It is probable that Luna, on account of his sanguinary and arbitrary character will do damage and oppose the older element of the revolution. That would give rise to trouble between them and civil war among the revolutionary party itself."

Felipe Calderon, an ilustrado lawyer who drafted the version
of the Constitutionof the Philippine Republic which was
adopted by the Malolos Congress

"What makes me suffer more than the cruel sickness which has been shortening my life is seeing some of our countrymen on the side of the Americans.  Many of them are occupying highly paid jobs shameful for a Filipino to occupy. Under their orders, they send men to spy on me day and night.:

• Apolinario Mabini, writing while captivity by the Americans

"On April 17, 1901, Governor W.H. Taft went to Cebu accompanied by a Filipino, T.H. Pardo de Tavera, whose views were diametrically opposed to those of the Cebuano majority. "

• John Foreman, Philippine Islands, page 526
_________________________

"Following the inauguration of the Taft government, Taft moved to reward his Fderalista collaborators by persuading Washington to name Pardo de Tavera, Benito Legarda, and Jose Luzuriaga to the Philippine Commission."
 

Frank Hindman Golay, in his book "Face of Empire: U.S.-Philippine Relations, 1898-1946", page 76

"It was characteristic of Taft that he would continue to stubbornly support his Fderalista collaborators when it was clear that neither the party nor the "better class" leaders he had picked for preferment had a political futire in the Philippines.  The Hispanicized "ilustrados" who had organized the party did represent the "better class" within the Philkippine society, but they had little rapport with most Filipinos.  They accepted status and preferment from Taft and the commission, but they were helpless to bolster their position by developing a viable political base within the Filipino society.  Defended by Taft in Washington, they became over time a burdensome anachronism to American administrators in the Philippines."
 
Frank Hindman Golay, in his book "Face of Empire: U.S.-Philippine Relations, 1898-1946", page 77

"Simultaneously with the prosecution of the Panay Island campaign, General Miller opened negotiations for the submission of Negros Islands to American sovereignty…Aniceto Lacson accepted these terms, and General Miller formally appointed him Governor of the Island in March 1899.  It is evident, therefore, that no union existed between the local government of Negros and Aguinaldo's Republic in Luzon."

• John Foreman, Philippine Islands, pp. 520

"The arrival of an American expidition in the waters of Zamboanga on November 15, 1899, produced a sanguinary crisis in these faction fueds. Vicente Alvarez at once took measures to oppose the invaders' landing, whilst his rival, Isidro Midel, resolved to side with the Americnas.  The want of unity amongst the natives themselves was a great help to the Americans' plans. By this timethere appeared a third aspiran to local frame in the person of Melanio Sanson… Each of thses three individuals sought to rid himslef of his two rivals."

• John Foreman, Philippine Islands, pp 532

• Assimilation: the absorption of a minority group into the main cultural [and political] body.

• Collaboration: a person who cooperates with an enemy invader.

• Cooperation: the act of working together with another or others for a common purpose.

1. Was there an enemy?
2. Did the collaborator consider the U.S. as an enemy?
3. Did the collaborator believe in the independence cause?
4. Was the collaborator connected to the independence cause, directly or indirectly?

"July 5, 1899

"Schurman, Manila.

"Yours 4th received.  You are authorized to propose that under the military power of the President, pending action of Congress, government of the Philippine Islands shall consist of a Governor-General appointed by the President; cabinet appointed by the Governor-General;  a general advisory council elected by the people, the qualifications of elecltors to be carefully considered and determined; and the governor-general to have absolute veto.  Judiciary strong and independent;  principal judges appointed by the President.  The cabinet and judges to be chosen from natives or Americans, or both, having regard to fitness.  The President earnestly desires the cessation of bloodshed, and that the people of the Philippine Islands at an early date shall have the largest measure of local self-government consistent with peace and good order."

Filipinos Killing Filipinos for the Colonial Masters

"In drafting the Army Reorganization Act of 1901, Congress authorized the enlistment of up to 12,000 Filipinos in special "scout" units, and within a year 5,000 Filipinos were serving in the Philippine Scouts.  The Scouts were active in suppressing the remnants of the Filipino-American War and in the establishment of peace in the early years of commission government.  During the twelve years ending with 1913, Scout losses in action included 127 killed and 170 wounded.  Two-thirds of these casualties occurred in fighting prior to mid-1906, primariuly in actions against revolutionary guerillas on Luzon and Samar."

Frank Hindman Golay, in his book "Face of Empire: U.S.-Philippine Relations, 1898-1946", page 93

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